THE ENZYME CATALASE

A. Enzyme


Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions and affect the speed of the reaction but did not participate in the reaction. Enzymes act as biocatalicator. The enzyme has the following properties:• Speed ​​up the chemical reaction• Work in a typical (specific), meaning that each enzyme only works for one compound (substrate) certain• Only work on a specific range of temperature and pH• Damaged temperature is too high or too low• The chemical has not changed by the reaction where the enzyme works• Can work commute
Factors that affect the working of enzymes:a. temperaturesAt the optimum temperature, the enzyme activity is very good. If the temperature is too low the reaction to be slow, and if the temperature is too high enzyme will be damaged.

b. pH
Enzymes work well at optimum pH. The state of acids and bases that are too high to inhibit the activity of enzymes.
c. The concentration of the enzyme and substrateIf too little enzyme and the substrate is too much, the reaction will be slow and there is even a substrate which is not catalyzed. The more the enzyme reaction will be faster.
d. Inhibitor enzymeIf the inhibitor is added to the mixture of enzyme and substrate, the reaction rate will drop.

B. Enzyme Catalase and Hydrogen Peroxide
• The enzyme catalase
The enzyme catalase is one of the types of enzymes that are common in the cells of living creatures, one of which is a plant cell. The enzyme catalase is an enzyme decomposers hydrogen peroxide which is toxic and is a waste or byproduct of metabolism. If H2O2 are not broken down by this enzyme, it will cause death in plant cells. Therefore, this enzyme works to remodel H2O2 into harmless substances, namely in the form of water and oxygen. In addition to work specifically on certain substrates, enzymes also are thermolabile (susceptible to temperature changes) as well as a class of protein compounds. The effect of temperature is obvious, because it can damage the enzyme and make denatured protein like most
• Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 chemical formula invented by Louis Jacques Thenard in 1818. This compound is an inorganic chemicals which have strong oxidizing properties. Raw material for making hydrogen peroxide is hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2). The technology is widely used in the auto industry is the oxidation of hydrogen peroxide Anthraquinone. H2O2 is a colorless, odorless typical bit of acidity, and dissolve well in water. Under normal conditions (ambient conditions), hydrogen peroxide is very stable with decomposition rate of approximately less than 1% per year. The majority of the use of hydrogen peroxide is to utilize and manipulate the decomposition reaction, which essentially produces oxygen. At this stage of the production of hydrogen peroxide, the chemical stabilizer material is usually added for the purpose of inhibiting the rate of decomposition. Including decomposition occurs during hydrogen peroxide product in storage. In addition to producing oxygen, hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction also produces water (H2O) and heat. decomposition exothermic reaction that occurs is as follows: H2O2 H2O + 1 / 2O2 + 23:45 kcal / mol
Factors that affect the hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction is:1.Material certain organic, such as alcohol and gasoline2.Catalis, such as Pd, Fe, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Mn3.Temperature, hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction rate increased by 2.2 x each increase of   10°C (the temperature range 20-100°C)
4.surface container uneven (active surface)5.solid were suspended, such as particles of dust or other impurities6.very high pH (more alkaline) the higher the decomposition rate7.Radiation, especially the radiation of light with short wavelengths
C. The liver in general
The liver is the largest organ in us. In adults weighing up to approximately 1.3 kg. Divided into two lobes, the left and right. In addition to large in size, the liver also had a great role. He was involved in the digestion process, plays a role in hundreds of different chemical reactions of the body, and also serves as a storage organ. The main function of the liver is to collect blood from the gastrointestinal tract through the hepatic circulation and enter a variety of chemical substances the body into it before it is released back to the other body parts. The chemical substances produced by millions of liver cells known as hepatocytes. Hepatocytes was submerged in a pool of blood coming from the gastrointestinal tract. That's how the exchange of substances between blood and liver cells. Liver function is not fully understood. Some functions of the organ are:
 
-This Setting blood sugar levels-Metabolism fat-Metabolism protein-Storage vitamin-Storage mineral-Production bile-Detoxification-Recycling hormone

Definition of trinitrotoluene TNT Materials and Function Usefulness

What it is and what it does TNT

Trinitrotoluene (TNT, or Trotyl) are the aromatic hydrocarbons pale yellow sting that melt at a temperature of 354 K (178 ° F, 81 ° C). Trinitrotoluene is explosive used alone or mixed,

for example in Torpex, Tritonal, Composition B or Amatol. TNT is prepared by nitration of toluene C6H5CH3; chemical formula C6H2 (NO2) 3CH3, and IUPAC name 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene.

The process of formation of TNT

Making the TNT can be made by nitration of the toluene with a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid. This stage requires a mixture of acid in high concentrations and is free of SO3.

Trinitrotoluene (TNT, or Trotyl) is a crystalline pale yellow aromatic hydrocarbons which melt at a temperature of 354 K (178 ° F, 81 ° C). Trinitrotoluene is explosive used alone or mixed, for example in Torpex, Tritonal, Composition B or Amatol. TNT is prepared by nitration of toluene C6H5CH3; chemical formula C6H2 (NO2) 3CH3, and IUPAC name 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene.

Chemical formula:

C7H5N3O6 or C6H2 (NO2) 3CH3

TNT stands for Tri-Nitro-Toluene. Obtained from the addition of the element nitrogen (N) in Toluene compound. N element is bonded to three feet Toluene. That is where he got the name "Tri" meaning three. Nitrogen additions process is called nitration.

Trinitrotoluene (TNT)

In the industry, TNT is synthesized in three steps. First, toluene nitrated with a mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid to produce mono-nitrotoluene or MNT. MNT is separated and then in the nitration back to form dinitrotoluene or DNT. In the final stage, DNT nitrated form trinitrotoluene or TNT using an anhydrous mixture of nitric acid and oleum. 
Nitric acid consumed for industrial processes, but the dilute sulfuric acid can be reused. After nitration, TNT is stabilized by a process called sulphitation, where crude TNT is treated with a solution of sodium sulfite and to eliminate isomer TNT and unwanted reaction products.

    Rinse water from sulphitation known as red water and is a significant pollutant and is a waste product from the manufacture of TNT.

usefulness TNT

The use of TNT is as explosives or as raw material maker of explosives such as dynamite. But TNT explosives Secondary still classed as fuel rather less power than other types of explosives such as Nitro Glycerin and so forth.

The major use as an explosive.

Special uses, TNT with modifications adapted to the purpose.

Used also as a measure of the strength of other explosives.

New Findings Particle Physics Experiments

Results prestigious  physics experiment involving a University of Michigan professor seems to confirm the strange discovery 20 years who guide the existence of a new elementary particle that is the fourth aspect of neutrinos.

The new results further explain a violation of fundamental symmetry of the universe which states that particles of antimatter behave in the same way as materials balancer. Similarly, as reported by Physorg.

Neutrinos are neutral elementary particles produced in the radioactive decay of other particles. "Aspects" are known from electron neutrino is a neutral balance and its relatives are heavier muon and tau. Without taking into account aspects of the origin of neutrinos, particles are constantly changing from one type to another in a phenomenon called "neutrino oscillation aspects".

An electron neutrino might become a muon neutrino, and then into an electron neutrino again. Previously, scientists believed the existence of three aspects of the neutrino. In the Mini Booster Neutrino Experiment, dubbed MiniBooNE, researchers detected more oscillations are only possible if there are more than three aspects.

"These results imply that there are new particles or forces we have not yet imagined," said Byron Roe, who is a distinguished retired professor at the Physics Section, and author of a paper on the results newly published in Physical Review Letters.

"The simplest explanation involves adding new particles such as neutrinos, or sterile neutrinos that do not have the normal weak interactions."

All three types of neutrino interact with matter primarily through the weak nuclear force which makes them difficult to detect. Hypothesized that this fourth aspect would not interact through the weak force which makes it even more difficult to find.

The existence of sterile neutrinos could help explain the composition of the universe, said William Louis, who is a scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory which was once a doctoral student at UM and is involved in the MiniBooNE experiment.

"Physicists and astronomers were looking for sterile neutrinos because they could explain in part or even the whole dark matter of the universe," said Louis. "Sterile neutrinos could also possibly help explain the matter asymmetry of the universe, or why the universe is basically composed of matter rather than antimatter."

MiniBooNE experiment is a collaboration among some 60 researchers from various institutions, held at Fermilab to check the results of the experiment Liquid Scintillator Neutrino Detector (LSND) at Los Alamos National Laboratory which started in 1990. The LSND was the first to detect more neutrino oscillations than predicted by the standard model.

The preliminary results MiniBooNE a few years ago based on data from a neutrino beam (as opposed to an antineutrino beam), did not support the LSND results. Nonetheless, LSND experiments conducted using an antineutrino beam, so it was the next step for MiniBooNE.

The new results are based on the first three years of data from an antineutrino beam, and tells a different story than the previous results. MiniBooNE antineutrino beam data does support the LSND invention, and the fact that the MiniBooNE experiments produced different results for antineutrinos instead of neutrinos, in particular surprising physicists.

"The fact that we see this effect in antineutrinos and not in neutrinos makes it even more strange," Roe said. "This result means necessary even more serious addition to the standard model we than had been thought from the first LSND result."

These results seem to violate "the content parity symmetry" of the universe which states that the laws of physics apply in the same way for particles and antiparticles their equalizer. Violations of this symmetry have been seen in some decomposition rare, but not with neutrinos, Roe said.

While these results are statistically significant and do support the LSND discovery, the researchers physicists reminded that they need results in a longer period or additional experiments before they are allowed to disqualify the standard model predictions.

Definition and Process Ammonification

Ammonification is an important step in the nitrogen cycle, the natural cycle of the earth which makes the supply of these essential elements became available for living organisms.

This is done by a variety of microorganisms found in soil and water, which break down proteins and amino acids in plants and animals die, and dirt, releasing ammonia, which is usually stored in the soil or water in the form of ammonium ions.

The groups other microorganisms turn it into nitrate, which can be absorbed by plants, keeping the cycle. Ammonification It is therefore essential for all plant and animal life on this planet. In the field of agriculture and horticulture, the addition of compost and manure into the soil to provide an additional source of nitrogen for ammonification.

Nitrogen is essential to all life forms as needed for amino acids, proteins and DNA; However, although many in the atmosphere, it can not be absorbed directly in the form of the element by most organisms.

Several types of soil bacteria are capable of trapping nitrogen atmosphere - a process known as nitrogen fixation - and combine it with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is then oxidized by nitrification bacteria to nitrite and then nitrate. Elemental form that can be absorbed by plants and converted into amino acids, which are linked together to form proteins.

These compounds are returned to the soil when the plants, or animals that eat them and die and through animal waste, but most organisms can not absorb and process them: they must first be broken down into a form suitable.

Ammonification is a process - undertaken by a variety of microorganisms - which break down proteins, amino acids, and other nitrogen-containing compounds in dead organic matter and waste to form ammonia. Protein is first split into amino acids, which are compounds that contain amine groups (NH2) by bacteria use enzymes known as proteases. Amino acids, and other compounds with an amine group, such as nucleic acids and urea, then decomposed by microorganisms known as ammonifying bacteria, releasing ammonia (NH3). It is soluble in water, and typically form the ammonium ion (NH4 +), by combining with hydrogen ions (H +), which is abundant in most soils. This ammonium is oxidized to nitrite and nitrate by nitrification bacteria, in the same way as nitrogen that has been "fixed" from the atmosphere.

Sodium benzoate: Definition, chemical formula, utilities and danger

Discussion sodium benzoate is limited in terms of sodium benzoate, sodium benzoate chemical formula, the use of sodium benzoate and sodium benzoate danger. It seems we are hard to be separated from the chemicals on this one. Therefore, we should know a lot about the ins and outs of sodium benzoate.

Definition of Sodium Benzoate

Sodium benzoate is the sodium salt is used as a food preservative. But actually there is a chemical that occurs naturally in some foods. These chemicals are often found in processed foods or beverages such as soda, fruit juice, vinegar, medicines, cosmetics, dyes or the industry. These chemicals are often added to some foods, such as sauces to extend the shelf life. Sodium benzoate can also be used to stop the fermentation process in drinks, such as wine. By understanding the ins and outs of these chemicals allow you to be able to decide when to use these chemicals and when not to use it. Because in addition to the benefits offered, there are also side effects.

Chemical formula Sodium Benzoate:

Usefulness Sodium Benzoate

Sodium benzoate can be found in a variety of substances, both naturally and as a chemical additive.

1. Food

Many fruits such as berries, plums, apples or cranberries naturally contain sodium benzoate with a relatively low level. However, most people who consumed these chemicals because of the use of preservatives in processed foods. About 75 percent of people can taste bitter, salty, sodium benzoate is added to the diet. Sometimes these chemicals tastes sweet. Foods most often contain chemicals are soft drinks. Although sodium benzoate is not considered toxic and no adverse health effects, but the FDA currently prohibits sodium benzoate to be added to the food. The maximum allowed is 0.1 percent.

2. Other

In addition to acting as a food preservative, these chemicals are also used to extend the shelf life of toothpaste, deodorant, mouthwash, shampoo, lotions, ointments, syrups or pills. These chemicals are used to prevent the growth of bacteria or an inhibitor that can prevent metal corrosion. Metal cans containing cleaners or liquid food to be coated sodium benzoate so that the metal is not subject to corrosion. Machines such as the vehicle's engine is also covered by these chemicals for the same reason.

Dangers of Sodium Benzoate

Health Protection Branch of Canada (Health Protection Branch of Canada) and the administration of food and drugs - drugs (the Food and Drug Administration) states that sodium benzoate is safe to consume in small doses, but not in combination with ascorbic acid, otherwise known as citric acid or vitamin C, as this will produce a carcinogenic substance, namely benzene.

This carcinogenic substances believed to cause the cell death, damage to mitochondria in cells, damage DNA, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or leukemia. The study results also showed that the food coloring material combines with sodium benzoate can cause children to become hyperactive. The effects caused by consuming soda, which its benzene content results in higher than other food or beverages.

Regulation of the Use of Sodium Benzoate in Foods

During the 2005 study, the FDA investigated 200 soft drinks and similar beverages to determine its level of benzene. Most meet FDA requirements and found only 10 drinks with benzene levels higher than recommended.

Because consumers pay attention to the side effects of these chemicals, beverage manufacturers in the United States are no longer using coloring materials in its products. Similar efforts are also applicable to the 'Foods Standards Agency Board' in the UK began in 2009.

Reduce Consumption of Sodium Benzoate

If you are concerned with the health of Sodium Benzoate yourself this, it is advisable to read the labels of food or drink with caution. Note any product containing benzoic acid, benzene or benzoate, and give more attention to the content of citric acid compounds, ascorbic acid and vitamin C. Limiting the intake of processed fruit juice (ie processed fruit juice instead of fruit juice naturally) or soft drinks can also help to reduce this risk, especially for children who may be susceptible to ADHD.

From the above explanation it is stated that sodium benzoate is safe for consumption in low levels unless combined with ascorbic acid or dyes. Because the combination will produce benzene compounds that are carcinogenic.